Which theorist proposed eight psychosocial crises that influence personality development across the lifespan?

• A. Erik Erikson
• B. Jean Piaget
• C. Lev Vygotsky
• D. Ivan Pavlov

Answer: (A)

This question tests knowledge of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which proposes eight crises that shape personality across the lifespan. Each stage presents a central conflict to resolve, and how that conflict is resolved influences the development of a healthy personality and the virtue the individual carries forward. For example, trust versus mistrust in infancy lays the foundation for hope; autonomy versus shame and doubt in toddlerhood builds a sense of will; initiative versus guilt in early childhood fosters purpose; industry versus inferiority in school-age years develops competence; identity versus role confusion in adolescence leads to fidelity; intimacy versus isolation in young adulthood cultivates love; generativity versus stagnation in middle adulthood fosters care; and integrity versus despair in old age yields wisdom. When resolutions are positive, healthy traits emerge; when not, challenges can carry into later stages. This framework differs from Piaget’s focus on cognitive development, Vygotsky’s emphasis on social and cultural tools in learning, and Pavlov’s conditioning theory, which address different aspects of development.